Andrew Ayer

I've previously discussed the problems caused by buggy DNS servers that don't implement IPv6-related queries properly. The worst problem I've faced is that, by default, F5 Network's "BIG-IP GTM" appliance doesn't respond to AAAA queries for certain records, causing lengthy delays as IPv6-capable resolvers continue to send AAAA queries before finally timing out.

Now www.xbox.com is exhibiting broken AAAA behavior, and it looks like an F5 "GTM" appliance may be to blame. www.xbox.com is a CNAME for www.gtm.xbox.com, which is itself a CNAME for wildcard.xbox.com-c.edgekey.net (which is in turn a CNAME for another CNAME, but that's not important here). The nameservers for gtm.xbox.com ({ns1-bn, ns1-qy, ns2-bn, ns2-qy}.gtm.xbox.com), contrary to the DNS spec, do not return the CNAME record when queried for the AAAA record for www.gtm.xbox.com:

Contrast to an A record query, which properly returns the CNAME:

Consequentially, any IPv6-only host attempting to resolve www.xbox.com will fail, even though www.xbox.com has IPv6 connectivity and ultimately (once you follow 4 CNAMEs) has an AAAA record. You can witness this by running ping6 www.xbox.com from a Linux box (but flush your DNS caches first). Fortunately, IPv6-only hosts are rare, and dual-stack or IPv4-only hosts won't have a problem resolving www.xbox.com because they'll try resolving the A record. Nevertheless, this buggy behavior is extremely troubling, especially when the bug is with such simple logic (it doesn't matter what kind of record is being requested: if there's a CNAME, you return it), and is bound to cause headaches during the IPv6 transition.

I can't tell for sure what DNS implementation is powering the gtm.xbox.com nameservers, but considering that "GTM" stands for "Global Traffic Manager," F5's DNS appliance product, which has a history of AAAA record bugginess, I have a hunch...

In my previous blog post, I discussed the unique way in which titus, my high-security TLS proxy server, isolates the TLS private key in a separate process to protect it against Heartbleed-like vulnerabilities in OpenSSL. In this blog post, I will discuss the other isolation techniques used by titus to guard against OpenSSL vulnerabilities.

A separate process for every connection

The most basic isolation performed by titus is using a new and dedicated process for every TLS connection. This ensures that a vulnerability in OpenSSL can't be used to compromise the memory of another connection. Although most of the attention around Heartbleed focused on extracting the private key, Heartbleed also exposed other sensitive information, such as user passwords contained in buffers from other connections. By giving each TLS connection a new and dedicated process, titus confines an attacker to accessing memory related to only his own connection. Such memory would contain at most the session key material for the connection and buffers from previous packets, which is information the attacker already knows.

Currently titus forks but does not call execve(). This simplifies the code greatly, but it means that the child process has access to all the memory of the parent process at the time of the fork. Therefore, titus is careful to avoid loading anything sensitive into the parent's memory. In particular, the private key is never loaded by the parent process.

However, some low-grade sensitive information may be loaded into the parent's memory before forking. For instance, the parent process calls getpwnam() during initialization, so the contents of /etc/passwd may persist in memory and be accessible by child processes. A future version of titus should probably call execve() to launch the child process so it starts off with a clean slate.

Another important detail is that titus must reinitialize OpenSSL's random number generator by calling RAND_poll() in the child process after forking. Failure to do so could result in multiple children generating the same random numbers, which would have catastrophic consequences.

Privilege separation

To protect against arbitrary code execution vulnerabilities, titus runs as dedicated non-root users. Currently two users are used: one for running the processes that talk to the network, and another for the processes that hold the private key.

Using the same user for all connections has security implications. The most serious problem is that, by default, users can use the ptrace() system call to access the memory of other processes running as the same user. To prevent this, titus disables ptracing using the PR_SET_DUMPABLE option to the prctl() syscall. This is an imperfect security measure: it's Linux-specific, and doesn't prevent attackers from disrupting other processes by sending signals.

Ultimately, titus should use a separate user for every concurrent connection. Modern Unix systems use 32 bit UIDs, making it completely feasible to allocate a range of UIDs to be used by titus, provided that titus reuses UIDs for future connections. To reuse a UID securely, titus would need to first kill off any latent process owned by that user. Otherwise, an attacker could fork a process that lies in wait until the UID is reused. Unfortunately, Unix provides no airtight way to kill all processes owned by a user. It may be necessary to leverage cgroups or PID namespaces, which are unfortunately Linux-specific.

Filesystem isolation

Finally, in order to reduce the attack surface even further, titus chroots into an empty, unwritable directory. Thus, an attacker who can execute arbitrary code is unable to read sensitive files, attack special files or setuid binaries, or download rootkits to the filesystem. Note that titus chroots after reseeding OpenSSL's RNG, so it's not necessary include /dev/urandom in the chroot directory.

Future enhancements

In addition to the enhancements mentioned above, I'd like to investigate using seccomp filtering to limit the system calls which titus is allowed to execute. Limiting titus to a minimal set of syscalls would reduce the attack surface on the kernel, preventing an attacker from breaking out of the sandbox if there's a kernel vulnerability in a particular syscall.

I'd also like to investigate network and process namespaces. Network namespaces would isolate titus from the network, preventing attackers from launching attacks on systems on your internal network or on the Internet. Process namespaces would provide an added layer of isolation and make it easy to kill off latent processes when a connection ends.

Why titus?

The TLS protocol is incredibly complicated, which makes TLS implementations necessarily complex, which makes them inevitably prone to security vulnerabilities. If you're building a simple server application that needs to talk TLS, the complexity of the TLS implementation is going to dwarf the complexity of your own application. Even if your own code is securely written and short and simple enough to be easily audited, your application may nevertheless be vulnerable if you link with a TLS implementation. Titus provides a way to isolate the TLS implementation, so its complexity doesn't affect the security of your own application.

By the way, titus was recently discussed on the Red Hat Security Blog along with some other interesting approaches to OpenSSL privilege separation, such as sslps, a seccomp-based approach. The blog post is definitely worth a read.

Ever since Heartbleed, I've been thinking of ways to better isolate OpenSSL so that a vulnerability in OpenSSL won't result in the compromise of sensitive information. This blog post will describe how you can protect the private key by isolating OpenSSL private key operations in a dedicated process, a technique I'm using in titus, my open source high-isolation TLS proxy server.

If you're worried about OpenSSL vulnerabilities, then simply terminating TLS in a dedicated process, such as stunnel, is a start, since it isolates sensitive web server memory from OpenSSL, but there's still the tricky issue of your private key. OpenSSL needs access to the private key to perform decryption and signing operations. And it's not sufficient to isolate just the key: you must also isolate all intermediate calculations, as Akamai learned when their patch to store the private key on a "secure heap" was ripped to shreds by security researcher Willem Pinckaers.

Fortunately, OpenSSL's modular nature can be leveraged to out-source RSA private key operations (sign and decrypt) to user-defined functions, without having to modify OpenSSL itself. From these user-defined functions, it's possible to use inter-process communication to transfer the arguments to a different process, where the operation is performed, and then transfer the result back. This provides total isolation: the process talking to the network needs access to neither the private key nor any intermediate value resulting from the RSA calculations.

I'm going to show you how to do this. Note that, for clarity, the code presented here lacks proper error handling and resource management. For production quality code, you should look at the source for titus.

Traditionally, you initialize OpenSSL using code like the following:

SSL_CTX*	ctx;
FILE*		cert_filehandle;
FILE*		key_filehandle;
// ... omitted: initialize CTX, open cert and key files ...
X509*		cert = PEM_read_X509_AUX(cert_filehandle, NULL, NULL, NULL);
EVP_PKEY*	key = PEM_read_PrivateKey(key_filehandle, NULL, NULL, NULL);
SSL_CTX_use_certificate(ctx, cert);
SSL_CTX_use_PrivateKey(ctx, key);

The first thing we do is replace the call to PEM_read_PrivateKey, which reads the private key into memory, with our own function that creates a shell of a private key with references to our own implementations of the sign and decrypt operations. Let's call that function make_private_key_shell:

EVP_PKEY* make_private_key_shell (X509* cert)
{
	EVP_PKEY* key = EVP_PKEY_new();
	RSA*      rsa = RSA_new();

	// It's necessary for our shell to contain the public RSA values (n and e).
	// Grab them out of the certificate:
	RSA*      public_rsa = EVP_PKEY_get1_RSA(X509_get_pubkey(crt));
	rsa->n = BN_dup(public_rsa->n);
	rsa->e = BN_dup(public_rsa->e);

	static RSA_METHOD  ops = *RSA_get_default_method();
	ops.rsa_priv_dec = rsa_private_decrypt;
	ops.rsa_priv_enc = rsa_private_encrypt;
	RSA_set_method(rsa, &ops);

	EVP_PKEY_set1_RSA(key, rsa);
	return key;
}

The magic happens with the call to RSA_set_method. We pass it a struct of function pointers from which we reference our own implementations of the private decrypt and private encrypt (sign) operations. These implementations look something like this:

int rsa_private_decrypt (int flen, const unsigned char* from, unsigned char* to, RSA* rsa, int padding)
{
	do_rsa_operation(1, flen, from, to, rsa, padding);
}

int rsa_private_encrypt (int flen, const unsigned char* from, unsigned char* to, RSA* rsa, int padding)
{
	do_rsa_operation(2, flen, from, to, rsa, padding);
}

int do_rsa_operation (char command, int flen, const unsigned char* from, unsigned char* to, RSA* rsa, int padding)
{
	write(sockpair[0], &command, sizeof(command));
	write(sockpair[0], &padding, sizeof(padding));
	write(sockpair[0], &flen, sizeof(flen));
	write(sockpair[0], from, flen);

	int to_len;
	read(sockpair[0], &to_len, sizeof(to_len));
	if (to_len > 0) {
		read(sockpair[0], to, to_len);
	}

	return to_len;
}

The arguments and results are sent to and from the other process over a socket pair that has been previously opened. Our message format is simply:

• uint8_t command; // 1 for decrypt, 2 for sign
• int padding; // the padding argument
• int flen; // the flen argument
• unsigned char from[flen]; // the from argument

The response format is:

• int to_len; // length of result buffer (to)
• unsigned char to[to_len]; // the result buffer

Here's the code to open the socket pair and run the RSA private key process:

void run_rsa_process (const char* key_path)
{
	socketpair(AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0, sockpair);
	if (fork() == 0) {
		close(sockpair[0]);
		FILE* key_filehandle = fopen(key_path, "r");
		RSA*  rsa = PEM_read_RSAPrivateKey(key_filehandle, NULL, NULL, NULL);
		fclose(key_filehandle);

		int command;
		while (read(sockpair[1], &command, sizeof(command)) == 1) {
			int padding;
			int flen;
			read(sockpair[1], &padding, sizeof(padding));
			read(sockpair[1], &flen, sizeof(flen));
			unsigned char* from = (unsigned char*)malloc(flen);
			read(sockpair[1], from, flen);
			unsigned char* to = (unsigned char*)malloc(RSA_size(rsa));
			int to_len = -1;
			if (command == 1) {
				to_len = RSA_private_decrypt(flen, from, to, rsa, padding);
			} else if (command == 2) {
				to_len = RSA_private_encrypt(flen, from, to, rsa, padding);
			}
			write(sockpair[1], &to_len, sizeof(to_len));
			if (to_len > 0) {
				write(sockpair[1], to, sizeof(to_len));
			}
			free(to);
			free(from);
		}
		_exit(0);
	}
	close(sockpair[1]);
}

In the function above, we first create a socket pair for communicating between the parent (untrusted) process and child (trusted) process. We fork, and in the child process, we load the RSA private key, and then repeatedly service RSA private key operations received over the socket pair from the parent process. Only the child process, which never talks to the network, has the private key in memory. If the memory of the parent process, which does talk to the network, is ever compromised, the private key is safe.

That's the basic idea, and it works. There are other ways to do the interprocess communication that are more complicated but may be more efficient, such as using shared memory to transfer the arguments and results back and forth. But the socket pair implementation is conceptually simple and a good starting point for further improvements.

This is one of the techniques I'm using in titus to achieve total isolation of the part of OpenSSL that talks to the network. However, this is only part of the story. While this technique protects your private key against a memory disclosure bug like Heartbleed, it doesn't prevent other sensitive data from leaking. It also doesn't protect against more severe vulnerabilities, such as remote code execution. Remote code execution could be used to attack the trusted child process (such as by ptracing it and dumping its memory) or your system as a whole. titus protects against this using additional techniques like chrooting and privilege separation.

My next blog post will go into detail on titus' other isolation techniques. Follow me on Twitter, or subscribe to my blog's Atom feed, so you know when it's posted.

Update: Read part two of this blog post.

Because of the Heartbleed vulnerability in OpenSSL, I'm treating all of my private SSL keys as compromised and regenerating them. Fortunately, certificate authorities will reissue a certificate for free that signs a new key and is valid for the remaining time on the original certificate.

Unfortunately, using the openssl commands by hand to rekey dozens of SSL certificates is really annoying and is not my idea of a good time. So, I wrote a shell script called openssl-rekey to automate the process. openssl-rekey takes any number of certificate files as arguments, and for each one, generates a new private key of the same length as the original key, and a new CSR with the same common name as the original cert.

If you have a directory full of certificates, it's easy to run openssl-rekey on all of them with find and xargs:

Once you've done this, you just need to submit the .csr files to your certificate authority, and then install the new .key and .crt files on your servers.

By the way, if you're like me and hate dealing with openssl commands and cumbersome certificate authority websites, you should check out my side project, SSLMate, which makes buying certificates as easy as running sslmate buy www.example.com 2 and reissuing certificates as easy as running sslmate reissue www.example.com. I was able to reissue each of my SSLMate certs in under a minute. As my old certs expire I'm replacing them with SSLMate certs, and that cannot happen soon enough.

I discovered today that Xpdf deterministically segfaults when you try to print any PDF under i386 Wheezy. It doesn't segfault on amd64 Wheezy which is why I had not previously noticed this. Someone reported this bug over two years ago, which you'd think would have given ample time for this to be fixed for Wheezy. This bug led me to a related bug which paints quite a sad picture. To summarize:

• Xpdf uses its own PDF rendering engine. Some other developers thought it would be nice to be able to use this engine in other applications, so they ripped out Xpdf's guts and put them in a library called Poppler. Unfortunately, Xpdf continued to use its own rendering engine instead of linking with Poppler, so now there are two diverging codebases that do basically the same thing.
• Apparently this code is bad and has a history of security vulnerabilities. The Debian maintainers quite reasonably don't want to support both codebases, so they have attempted to patch Xpdf to use Poppler instead of its own internal engine.
• Unfortunately, this is hard and they haven't done a perfect job at it, which has led to a situation where Xpdf and Poppler each define their own, incompatible, versions of the same struct... with which they then attempt to interoperate.
• As a consequence, Xpdf accesses uninitialized memory, or accesses initialized memory incorrectly, so it's a miracle any time you manage to use Xpdf without it crashing.

The Debian maintainers have three options:

1. Stop trying to patch Xpdf to use Poppler.
2. Fix their patch of Xpdf so it actually works.
3. Do nothing.

There is a patch for option 2, but it has been rejected for being too long and complicated. Indeed it is long and complicated, and will make it more difficult to package new upstream versions of Xpdf. But that's the price that will have to be paid as Xpdf and Poppler continue to diverge, if the maintainers insist that Xpdf use Poppler. Unfortunately they seem unwilling to pay this price, nor are they willing to go with option 1. Instead they have taken the easy way out, option 3, even though this results in a totally broken, and possibly insecure, package that is only going to get more broken.

Clearly I can't be using this quagmire of a PDF viewer, so I have uninstalled it after being a user for more than 10 years. Sadly, the alternatives are not great. Most of them take the position that UIs are for chumps, preferring instead to use keyboard shortcuts that I will never remember because I don't view PDFs often enough. Debian helpfully provides a version of Evince that isn't linked with GNOME and it works decently. Unfortunately, after quitting it, I noticed a new process in my process list called "evinced." As in "evince daemon." As in, a PDF viewer launched its own daemon. As in, a PDF viewer launched its own daemon. I don't even...

epdfview is like Evince but less cool because it doesn't have its own daemon has buggy text selection. qpdfview is rather nice but copies selected text in such a way that it can't be pasted by middle-clicking (it copies into XA_CLIPBOARD instead of XA_PRIMARY).

I decided to go with Evince and pretend I never saw evinced.

Update (2014-01-20): The Xpdf bug has allegedly been fixed, by defining a new version of the incompatible struct. This is option 2, which means we can expect Xpdf to break again as Poppler and Xpdf continue to diverge. It appears to be a different patch from the one that was rejected earlier, though I can't find any of the discussion which led to this fix being adopted. I will update this blog post if I learn more information.